oasis-root

open.3p (26004B)

'\" et
.TH OPEN "3P" 2017 "IEEE/The Open Group" "POSIX Programmer's Manual"
.\"
.SH PROLOG
This manual page is part of the POSIX Programmer's Manual.
The Linux implementation of this interface may differ (consult
the corresponding Linux manual page for details of Linux behavior),
or the interface may not be implemented on Linux.
.\"
.SH NAME
open, openat
\(em open file
.SH SYNOPSIS
.LP
.nf
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
.P
int open(const char *\fIpath\fP, int \fIoflag\fP, ...);
int openat(int \fIfd\fP, const char *\fIpath\fP, int \fIoflag\fP, ...);
.fi
.SH DESCRIPTION
The
\fIopen\fR()
function shall establish the connection between a file and a file
descriptor. It shall create an open file description that refers to a
file and a file descriptor that refers to that open file description.
The file descriptor is used by other I/O functions to refer to that
file. The
.IR path
argument points to a pathname naming the file.
.P
The
\fIopen\fR()
function shall return a file descriptor for the named file, allocated
as described in
.IR "Section 2.14" ", " "File Descriptor Allocation".
The open file description is new, and therefore the file descriptor
shall not share it with any other process in the
system. The FD_CLOEXEC file descriptor flag associated with the new
file descriptor shall be cleared unless the O_CLOEXEC flag is set in
.IR oflag .
.P
The file offset used to mark the current position within the file shall
be set to the beginning of the file.
.P
The file status flags and file access modes of the open file
description shall be set according to the value of
.IR oflag .
.P
Values for
.IR oflag
are constructed by a bitwise-inclusive OR of flags from the following
list, defined in
.IR <fcntl.h> .
Applications shall specify exactly one of the first five values
(file access modes) below in the value of
.IR oflag :
.IP O_EXEC 14
Open for execute only (non-directory files). The result is unspecified
if this flag is applied to a directory.
.IP O_RDONLY 14
Open for reading only.
.IP O_RDWR 14
Open for reading and writing. The result is undefined if this flag is
applied to a FIFO.
.IP O_SEARCH 14
Open directory for search only. The result is unspecified if this flag
is applied to a non-directory file.
.IP O_WRONLY 14
Open for writing only.
.P
Any combination of the following may be used:
.IP O_APPEND 14
If set, the file offset shall be set to the end of the file prior
to each write.
.IP O_CLOEXEC 14
If set, the FD_CLOEXEC flag for the new file descriptor shall be set.
.IP O_CREAT 14
If the file exists, this flag has no effect except as noted under O_EXCL
below. Otherwise, if O_DIRECTORY is not set the file shall be created as
a regular file; the user ID of the file shall be set to the effective
user ID of the process; the group ID of the file shall be set to
the group ID of the file's parent directory or to the effective
group ID of the process; and the access permission bits (see
.IR <sys/stat.h> )
of the file mode shall be set to the value of the argument following the
.IR oflag
argument taken as type
.BR mode_t
modified as follows: a bitwise AND is performed on the file-mode bits
and the corresponding bits in the complement of the process' file mode
creation mask. Thus, all bits in the file mode whose corresponding bit
in the file mode creation mask is set are cleared. When bits other than
the file permission bits are set, the effect is unspecified. The argument
following the
.IR oflag
argument does not affect whether the file is open for reading, writing,
or for both. Implementations shall provide a way to initialize the file's
group ID to the group ID of the parent directory. Implementations may,
but need not, provide an implementation-defined way to initialize the
file's group ID to the effective group ID of the calling process.
.IP O_DIRECTORY 14
If
.IR path
resolves to a non-directory file, fail and set
.IR errno
to
.BR [ENOTDIR] .
.IP O_DSYNC 14
Write I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined
by synchronized I/O data integrity completion.
.IP O_EXCL 14
If O_CREAT and O_EXCL are set,
\fIopen\fR()
shall fail if the file exists. The check for the existence of the file
and the creation of the file if it does not exist shall be atomic with
respect to other threads executing
\fIopen\fR()
naming the same filename in the same directory with O_EXCL and O_CREAT
set. If O_EXCL and O_CREAT are set, and
.IR path
names a symbolic link,
\fIopen\fR()
shall fail and set
.IR errno
to
.BR [EEXIST] ,
regardless of the contents of the symbolic link. If O_EXCL is set and
O_CREAT is not set, the result is undefined.
.IP O_NOCTTY 14
If set and
.IR path
identifies a terminal device,
\fIopen\fR()
shall not cause the terminal device to become the controlling terminal
for the process. If
.IR path
does not identify a terminal device, O_NOCTTY shall be ignored.
.IP O_NOFOLLOW 14
If
.IR path
names a symbolic link, fail and set
.IR errno
to
.BR [ELOOP] .
.IP O_NONBLOCK 14
When opening a FIFO with O_RDONLY or O_WRONLY set:
.RS 14 
.IP " *" 4
If O_NONBLOCK is set, an
\fIopen\fR()
for reading-only shall return without delay. An
\fIopen\fR()
for writing-only shall return an error if no process currently has the
file open for reading.
.IP " *" 4
If O_NONBLOCK is clear, an
\fIopen\fR()
for reading-only shall block the calling thread until a thread opens
the file for writing. An
\fIopen\fR()
for writing-only shall block the calling thread until a thread opens
the file for reading.
.P
When opening a block special or character special file that supports
non-blocking opens:
.IP " *" 4
If O_NONBLOCK is set, the
\fIopen\fR()
function shall return without blocking for the device to be ready or
available. Subsequent behavior of the device is device-specific.
.IP " *" 4
If O_NONBLOCK is clear, the
\fIopen\fR()
function shall block the calling thread until the device is ready or
available before returning.
.P
Otherwise, the O_NONBLOCK flag shall not cause an error, but it is
unspecified whether the file status flags will include the O_NONBLOCK
flag.
.RE
.IP O_RSYNC 14
Read I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete at the same
level of integrity as specified by the O_DSYNC and
O_SYNC flags. If both O_DSYNC and O_RSYNC are set in
.IR oflag ,
all I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined by
synchronized I/O data integrity completion. If both O_SYNC and O_RSYNC
are set in flags, all I/O operations on the file descriptor shall
complete as defined by synchronized I/O file integrity completion.
.IP O_SYNC 14
Write I/O operations on the file descriptor shall complete as defined
by synchronized I/O file integrity completion.
.RS 14 
.P
The O_SYNC flag shall be supported for regular files, even if the
Synchronized Input and Output option is not supported.
.RE
.IP O_TRUNC 14
If the file exists and is a regular file, and the file is successfully
opened O_RDWR or O_WRONLY, its length shall be truncated to 0, and
the mode and owner shall be unchanged. It shall have no effect on FIFO
special files or terminal device files. Its effect on other file types
is implementation-defined. The result of using O_TRUNC without either
O_RDWR or O_WRONLY is undefined.
.IP O_TTY_INIT 14
If
.IR path
identifies a terminal device other than a pseudo-terminal, the device
is not already open in any process, and either O_TTY_INIT is set in
.IR oflag
or O_TTY_INIT has the value zero,
\fIopen\fR()
shall set any non-standard
.BR termios
structure terminal parameters to a state that provides conforming
behavior; see the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1\(hy2017,
.IR "Section 11.2" ", " "Parameters that Can be Set".
It is unspecified whether O_TTY_INIT has any effect if the device is
already open in any process. If
.IR path
identifies the slave side of a pseudo-terminal that is not already open
in any process,
\fIopen\fR()
shall set any non-standard
.BR termios
structure terminal parameters to a state that provides conforming
behavior, regardless of whether O_TTY_INIT is set. If
.IR path
does not identify a terminal device, O_TTY_INIT shall be ignored.
.P
If O_CREAT and O_DIRECTORY are set and the requested access mode is
neither O_WRONLY nor O_RDWR, the result is unspecified.
.P
If O_CREAT is set and the file did not previously exist, upon successful
completion,
\fIopen\fR()
shall mark for update the last data access, last data modification,
and last file status change timestamps of the file and the last data
modification and last file status change timestamps of the parent
directory.
.P
If O_TRUNC is set and the file did previously exist, upon successful
completion,
\fIopen\fR()
shall mark for update the last data modification and last file status
change timestamps of the file.
.P
If both the O_SYNC and O_DSYNC flags are set, the effect is as if only
the O_SYNC flag was set.
.P
If
.IR path
refers to a STREAMS file,
.IR oflag
may be constructed from O_NONBLOCK OR'ed with either O_RDONLY, O_WRONLY,
or O_RDWR. Other flag values are not applicable to STREAMS devices and
shall have no effect on them. The value O_NONBLOCK affects the operation
of STREAMS drivers and certain functions applied to file descriptors
associated with STREAMS files. For STREAMS drivers, the implementation
of O_NONBLOCK is device-specific.
.P
The application shall ensure that it specifies the O_TTY_INIT flag on the
first open of a terminal device since system boot or since the device
was closed by the process that last had it open. The application need
not specify the O_TTY_INIT flag when opening pseudo-terminals.
If
.IR path
names the master side of a pseudo-terminal device, then it is unspecified
whether
\fIopen\fR()
locks the slave side so that it cannot be opened. Conforming applications
shall call
\fIunlockpt\fR()
before opening the slave side.
.P
The largest value that can be represented correctly in an object of type
.BR off_t
shall be established as the offset maximum in the open file description.
.P
The
\fIopenat\fR()
function shall be equivalent to the
\fIopen\fR()
function except in the case where
.IR path
specifies a relative path. In this case the file to be opened is
determined relative to the directory associated with the file descriptor
.IR fd
instead of the current working directory. If the access mode of the
open file description associated with the file descriptor is not
O_SEARCH, the function shall check whether directory searches are
permitted using the current permissions of the directory underlying
the file descriptor. If the access mode is O_SEARCH, the function
shall not perform the check.
.P
The
.IR oflag
parameter and the optional fourth parameter correspond exactly to the
parameters of
\fIopen\fR().
.P
If
\fIopenat\fR()
is passed the special value AT_FDCWD in the
.IR fd
parameter, the current working directory shall be used and the behavior
shall be identical to a call to
\fIopen\fR().
.SH "RETURN VALUE"
Upon successful completion, these functions shall open the file and
return a non-negative integer representing the file descriptor.
Otherwise, these functions shall return \-1 and set
.IR errno
to indicate the error. If \-1 is returned, no files shall be created
or modified.
.br
.SH ERRORS
These functions shall fail if:
.TP
.BR EACCES
Search permission is denied on a component of the path prefix, or the
file exists and the permissions specified by
.IR oflag
are denied, or the file does not exist and write permission is denied
for the parent directory of the file to be created, or O_TRUNC is
specified and write permission is denied.
.TP
.BR EEXIST
O_CREAT and O_EXCL are set, and the named file exists.
.TP
.BR EINTR
A signal was caught during
\fIopen\fR().
.TP
.BR EINVAL
The implementation does not support synchronized I/O for this file.
.TP
.BR EIO
The
.IR path
argument names a STREAMS file and a hangup or error occurred during the
\fIopen\fR().
.TP
.BR EISDIR
The named file is a directory and
.IR oflag
includes O_WRONLY or O_RDWR, or includes O_CREAT without O_DIRECTORY.
.TP
.BR ELOOP
A loop exists in symbolic links encountered during resolution of the
.IR path
argument, or O_NOFOLLOW was specified and the
.IR path
argument names a symbolic link.
.TP
.BR EMFILE
All file descriptors available to the process are currently open.
.TP
.BR ENAMETOOLONG
.br
The length of a component of a pathname is longer than
{NAME_MAX}.
.TP
.BR ENFILE
The maximum allowable number of files is currently open in the system.
.TP
.BR ENOENT
O_CREAT is not set and a component of
.IR path
does not name an existing file, or O_CREAT is set and a component of
the path prefix of
.IR path
does not name an existing file, or
.IR path
points to an empty string.
.TP
.BR ENOENT " or " ENOTDIR
.br
O_CREAT is set, and the
.IR path
argument contains at least one non-\c
<slash>
character and ends with one or more trailing
<slash>
characters. If
.IR path
without the trailing
<slash>
characters would name an existing file, an
.BR [ENOENT] 
error shall not occur.
.TP
.BR ENOSR
The
.IR path
argument names a STREAMS-based file and the system is unable to
allocate a STREAM.
.TP
.BR ENOSPC
The directory or file system that would contain the new file cannot be
expanded, the file does not exist, and O_CREAT is specified.
.TP
.BR ENOTDIR
A component of the path prefix names an existing file that is neither
a directory nor a symbolic link to a directory; or O_CREAT and O_EXCL
are not specified, the
.IR path
argument contains at least one non-\c
<slash>
character and ends with one or more trailing
<slash>
characters, and the last pathname component names an existing file that
is neither a directory nor a symbolic link to a directory; or O_DIRECTORY
was specified and the
.IR path
argument resolves to a non-directory file.
.TP
.BR ENXIO
O_NONBLOCK is set, the named file is a FIFO, O_WRONLY is set, and no
process has the file open for reading.
.TP
.BR ENXIO
The named file is a character special or block special file, and the
device associated with this special file does not exist.
.TP
.BR EOVERFLOW
The named file is a regular file and the size of the file cannot be
represented correctly in an object of type
.BR off_t .
.TP
.BR EROFS
The named file resides on a read-only file system and either O_WRONLY,
O_RDWR, O_CREAT (if the file does not exist), or O_TRUNC is set in the
.IR oflag
argument.
.P
The
\fIopenat\fR()
function shall fail if:
.TP
.BR EACCES
The access mode of the open file description associated with
.IR fd
is not O_SEARCH and the permissions of the directory underlying
.IR fd
do not permit directory searches.
.TP
.BR EBADF
The
.IR path
argument does not specify an absolute path and the
.IR fd
argument is neither AT_FDCWD nor a valid file descriptor open for
reading or searching.
.TP
.BR ENOTDIR
The
.IR path
argument is not an absolute path and
.IR fd
is a file descriptor associated with a non-directory file.
.P
These functions may fail if:
.TP
.BR EAGAIN
The
.IR path
argument names the slave side of a pseudo-terminal device that is locked.
.TP
.BR EINVAL
The value of the
.IR oflag
argument is not valid.
.TP
.BR ELOOP
More than
{SYMLOOP_MAX}
symbolic links were encountered during resolution of the
.IR path
argument.
.TP
.BR ENAMETOOLONG
.br
The length of a pathname exceeds
{PATH_MAX},
or pathname resolution of a symbolic link produced an intermediate
result with a length that exceeds
{PATH_MAX}.
.TP
.BR ENOMEM
The
.IR path
argument names a STREAMS file and the system is unable to allocate
resources.
.TP
.BR EOPNOTSUPP
The
.IR path
argument names a socket.
.TP
.BR ETXTBSY
The file is a pure procedure (shared text) file that is being executed
and
.IR oflag
is O_WRONLY or O_RDWR.
.LP
.IR "The following sections are informative."
.SH EXAMPLES
.SS "Opening a File for Writing by the Owner"
.P
The following example opens the file
.BR /tmp/file ,
either by creating it (if it does not already exist), or by truncating
its length to 0 (if it does exist). In the former case, if the call
creates a new file, the access permission bits in the file mode of the
file are set to permit reading and writing by the owner, and to permit
reading only by group members and others.
.P
If the call to
\fIopen\fR()
is successful, the file is opened for writing.
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
#include <fcntl.h>
\&...
int fd;
mode_t mode = S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR | S_IRGRP | S_IROTH;
char *pathname = "/tmp/file";
\&...
fd = open(pathname, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_TRUNC, mode);
\&...
.fi
.P
.RE
.SS "Opening a File Using an Existence Check"
.P
The following example uses the
\fIopen\fR()
function to try to create the
.BR LOCKFILE
file and open it for writing. Since the
\fIopen\fR()
function specifies the O_EXCL flag, the call fails if the file already
exists. In that case, the program assumes that someone else is updating
the password file and exits.
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
.P
#define LOCKFILE "/etc/ptmp"
\&...
int pfd; /* Integer for file descriptor returned by open() call. */
\&...
if ((pfd = open(LOCKFILE, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_EXCL,
    S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR | S_IRGRP | S_IROTH)) == -1)
{
    fprintf(stderr, "Cannot open /etc/ptmp. Try again later.\en");
    exit(1);
}
\&...
.fi
.P
.RE
.SS "Opening a File for Writing"
.P
The following example opens a file for writing, creating the file if it
does not already exist. If the file does exist, the system truncates
the file to zero bytes.
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
.P
#define LOCKFILE "/etc/ptmp"
\&...
int pfd;
char pathname[PATH_MAX+1];
\&...
if ((pfd = open(pathname, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT | O_TRUNC,
    S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR | S_IRGRP | S_IROTH)) == -1)
{
    perror("Cannot open output file\en"); exit(1);
}
\&...
.fi
.P
.RE
.SH "APPLICATION USAGE"
POSIX.1\(hy2008 does not require that terminal parameters be automatically set to
any state on first open, nor that they be reset after the last close. It
is possible for a non-conforming application to leave a terminal device
in a state where the next process to use that device finds it in a
non-conforming state, but has no way of determining this. To ensure
that the device is set to a conforming initial state, applications which
perform a first open of a terminal (other than a pseudo-terminal) should
do so using the O_TTY_INIT flag to set the parameters associated with
the terminal to a conforming state.
.P
Except as specified in this volume of POSIX.1\(hy2017, the flags allowed in
.IR oflag
are not mutually-exclusive and any number of them may be used
simultaneously. Not all combinations of flags make sense. For example,
using O_SEARCH | O_CREAT will successfully open a pre-existing directory
for searching, but if there is no existing file by that name, then
it is unspecified whether a regular file will be created. Likewise,
if a non-directory file descriptor is successfully returned, it is
unspecified whether that descriptor will have execute permissions as if
by O_EXEC (note that it is unspecified whether O_EXEC and O_SEARCH have
the same value).
.SH RATIONALE
Some implementations permit opening FIFOs with O_RDWR. Since FIFOs could
be implemented in other ways, and since two file descriptors can be used
to the same effect, this possibility is left as undefined.
.P
See
.IR "\fIgetgroups\fR\^(\|)"
about the group of a newly created file.
.P
The use of
\fIopen\fR()
to create a regular file is preferable to the use of
\fIcreat\fR(),
because the latter is redundant and included only for historical
reasons.
.P
The use of the O_TRUNC flag on FIFOs and directories (pipes cannot be
\fIopen\fR()-ed)
must be permissible without unexpected side-effects (for example,
\fIcreat\fR()
on a FIFO must not remove data). Since terminal special files might have
type-ahead data stored in the buffer, O_TRUNC should not affect their
content, particularly if a program that normally opens a regular file
should open the current controlling terminal instead. Other file types,
particularly implementation-defined ones, are left implementation-defined.
.P
POSIX.1\(hy2008 permits
.BR [EACCES] 
to be returned for conditions other than those explicitly listed.
.P
The O_NOCTTY flag was added to allow applications to avoid unintentionally
acquiring a controlling terminal as a side-effect of opening a terminal
file. This volume of POSIX.1\(hy2017 does not specify how a controlling terminal is acquired,
but it allows an implementation to provide this on
\fIopen\fR()
if the O_NOCTTY flag is not set and other conditions specified in the Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1\(hy2017,
.IR "Chapter 11" ", " "General Terminal Interface"
are met.
.P
In historical implementations the value of O_RDONLY is zero. Because of
that, it is not possible to detect the presence of O_RDONLY and another
option. Future implementations should encode O_RDONLY and O_WRONLY as
bit flags so that:
.sp
.RS 4
.nf
O_RDONLY | O_WRONLY == O_RDWR
.fi
.P
.RE
.P
O_EXEC and O_SEARCH are specified as two of the five file access modes.
Since O_EXEC does not apply to directories, and O_SEARCH only applies
to directories, their values need not be distinct. Since O_RDONLY
has historically had the value zero, implementations are not able to
distinguish between O_SEARCH and O_SEARCH | O_RDONLY, and similarly
for O_EXEC.
.P
In general, the
\fIopen\fR()
function follows the symbolic link if
.IR path
names a symbolic link. However, the
\fIopen\fR()
function, when called with O_CREAT and O_EXCL, is required to fail with
.BR [EEXIST] 
if
.IR path
names an existing symbolic link, even if the symbolic link refers
to a nonexistent file. This behavior is required so that privileged
applications can create a new file in a known location without the
possibility that a symbolic link might cause the file to be created in
a different location.
.P
For example, a privileged application that must create a file with a
predictable name in a user-writable directory, such as the user's home
directory, could be compromised if the user creates a symbolic link
with that name that refers to a nonexistent file in a system
directory. If the user can influence the contents of a file, the user
could compromise the system by creating a new system configuration or
spool file that would then be interpreted by the system. The test for a
symbolic link which refers to a nonexisting file must be atomic with
the creation of a new file.
.P
In addition, the
\fIopen\fR()
function refuses to open non-directories if the O_DIRECTORY flag is
set. This avoids race conditions whereby a user might compromise the
system by substituting a hard link to a sensitive file (e.g., a device
or a FIFO) while a privileged application is running, where opening a
file even for read access might have undesirable side-effects.
.P
In addition, the
\fIopen\fR()
function does not follow symbolic links if the O_NOFOLLOW flag is set.
This avoids race conditions whereby a user might compromise the system
by substituting a symbolic link to a sensitive file (e.g., a device)
while a privileged application is running, where opening a file even
for read access might have undesirable side-effects.
.P
The POSIX.1\(hy1990 standard required that the group ID of a newly created file be set to
the group ID of its parent directory or to the effective group ID of
the creating process. FIPS 151\(hy2 required that implementations provide a way
to have the group ID be set to the group ID of the containing
directory, but did not prohibit implementations also supporting a way
to set the group ID to the effective group ID of the creating process.
Conforming applications should not assume which group ID will be used. If
it matters, an application can use
\fIchown\fR()
to set the group ID after the file is created, or determine under what
conditions the implementation will set the desired group ID.
.P
The purpose of the
\fIopenat\fR()
function is to enable opening files in directories other than the
current working directory without exposure to race conditions. Any part
of the path of a file could be changed in parallel to a call to
\fIopen\fR(),
resulting in unspecified behavior. By opening a file descriptor for
the target directory and using the
\fIopenat\fR()
function it can be guaranteed that the opened file is located relative
to the desired directory. Some implementations use the
\fIopenat\fR()
function for other purposes as well. In some cases, if the
.IR oflag
parameter has the O_XATTR bit set, the returned file descriptor provides
access to extended attributes. This functionality is not standardized
here.
.SH "FUTURE DIRECTIONS"
None.
.SH "SEE ALSO"
.IR "\fIchmod\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIclose\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIcreat\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIdirfd\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIdup\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIexec\fR\^",
.IR "\fIfcntl\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIfdopendir\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIlink\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIlseek\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fImkdtemp\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fImknod\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIread\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIsymlink\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIumask\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIunlockpt\fR\^(\|)",
.IR "\fIwrite\fR\^(\|)"
.P
The Base Definitions volume of POSIX.1\(hy2017,
.IR "Chapter 11" ", " "General Terminal Interface",
.IR "\fB<fcntl.h>\fP",
.IR "\fB<sys_stat.h>\fP",
.IR "\fB<sys_types.h>\fP"
.\"
.SH COPYRIGHT
Portions of this text are reprinted and reproduced in electronic form
from IEEE Std 1003.1-2017, Standard for Information Technology
-- Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), The Open Group Base
Specifications Issue 7, 2018 Edition,
Copyright (C) 2018 by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc and The Open Group.
In the event of any discrepancy between this version and the original IEEE and
The Open Group Standard, the original IEEE and The Open Group Standard
is the referee document. The original Standard can be obtained online at
http://www.opengroup.org/unix/online.html .
.PP
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